Transport energy use is one of the greatest drivers of climate change, contributing 25% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,⁽²⁾ which are now widely recognised as the major cause of anthropologically-exacerbated global warming.⁽³⁾ Almost all future growth in transport energy expenditure is expected to come from low-and-middle income countries (LMIC).⁽⁴⁾ Africa is urbanising faster than any other continent,⁽⁵⁾ with a consequent increase in motorisation.⁽⁶⁾ Thus, as part of the sustainable design and development of African cities there is a dire need to address the balancing act of providing adequate infrastructure to support this growth, while considering environmental (and thus human) sustainability. In African cities, transport networks are ill equipped to handle the rapidly increasing number of road users. Consequently, current transport infrastructure in the majority of African cities is inadequate, hazardous and inefficient.⁽⁷⁾ This is partly why transport infrastructure is also a major public health concern. For example, each year 1.2 million people are killed in road traffic accidents and over 50 million are injured.⁽⁸⁾ More than 90% of these deaths occur in LMIC.⁽⁹⁾

This CAI discussion paper explores how strengthening public transport infrastructure, although often overlooked in Africa’s development, can have effective and efficient impacts on urban sustainability, health, productivity and equity. The paper discusses current transport trends in Africa that are threatening environmental and human health, and the potential contributions that public transport can make to climate change mitigation and public health promotion.

Informal and private transport trends: A threat to sustainability

As urban populations swell, the need for mobility intensifies. Transport energy use is the fastest growing source of GHG emissions globally, and 80% of this increase is occurring due to increased motorisation in LMIC, where it rises nearly 4% annually as opposed to the global 2.7%.⁽¹⁰⁾ The number of cars in LMIC is set to triple, topping over 2 billion vehicles by 2050,⁽¹¹⁾ contributing to an 80% global increase in transport energy use between the turn of the century and 2030.⁽¹²⁾

This rapid increase in urban mobility has occurred without a corresponding investment in transport infrastructure and with little to no active road infrastructure planning and design.⁽¹³⁾ For example, only 11 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have national policies in place that aim to invest in public transport infrastructure, and only 3 of these have secured full funding for the implementation of these policies.⁽¹⁴⁾

These factors, among others, primarily contribute to the inefficiency of transport in African cities. For one thing, the combination of crumbling transport infrastructure with increased motorisation is environmentally unsustainable. The rapid and continuous introduction of vehicles into the road networks of LMIC in Africa leads to more carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, which exacerbate current and future environmental consequences at a time when the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change insists that it is necessary to cut global CO₂ emissions in half by 2050 in order to avoid dangerous climate-related consequences for human health.⁽¹⁵⁾

Even without considering environmental implications, inefficient transport in African cities is also a matter of economic sustainability for the individual, city and nation. Soaring urban population growth in the absence of adequate transport networks results in nightmarish congestion that causes lengthy travel times. Many urban-dwellers in African cities commute up to four hours every day,⁽¹⁶⁾ which results in loss of productivity for families, companies and cities alike. Inefficient transport infrastructure is not only a lost opportunity to maximise resource generation, it also comes at an unnecessary cost, using resources that could be used to promote more sustainable growth. For example, air pollution, largely caused by vehicle emissions, costs LMIC up to 20% of their gross domestic product (GDP).⁽¹⁷⁾ Likewise, urban families in developing regions in Africa can spend upwards of 30% of their income on transport-related energy services.⁽¹⁸⁾

Because of its negative implications for the environment and its detriment on economic prosperity, transport infrastructure cannot be overlooked in the expansion and design of cities throughout Africa, if the hope is that such growth will be sustainable. In addition to this, Africa’s current transport environment is also detrimental to public health, further highlighting the necessity to address transport in development policy, as the section below discusses.

Hazardous transport: A public health crisis

The dangerous nature of road travel and the inefficiency of transport in some African cities directly harm human health. One of the more obvious health threats of the transport environment is the morbidity and mortality caused by road traffic injuries. Although Africa is the least motorised region (only possessing 2% of the world’s vehicles)⁽¹⁹⁾, it has the highest death rates in the world, as shown in Figure 1. By 2015, road traffic injuries are expected to surpass HIV&AIDS as the leading cause of death in Africa for males aged 5-15.⁽²⁰⁾

Figure 1. Road death rates in 2010 (per 100,000 population)⁽²¹⁾

Road traffic accidents are not the only aspect of an inadequate transport network that directly affects the health of a population. An estimated 1.3 million people die prematurely from urban air pollution each year, and the transport sector is a major contributor to compromised urban air quality, second only to the manufacturing and construction industry.⁽²²⁾ These deaths and injuries, largely associated with inadequate infrastructure, slack regulations, and lack of political will,⁽²³⁾ point to a flagrant disregard for the unnecessary cost of human lives and human capital. Although often not the focus of sustainable development initiatives, public transport can be a remarkably effective way to mitigate climate change effects while promoting the prosperous growth of African cities and enhancing public health, as discussed in the next section.

Public transport: A key to sustainable urban development, climate change preparedness, health promotion, and disease prevention

The introduction of wide-scale public transport, supported by strengthened transport infrastructure such as roads, regulations, and related services, has the potential to be an effective means of mitigating climate-related consequences to the environment and human wellbeing while supporting urban growth. The World Health Organisation estimates that widespread investment in public transport can result in a 25% decrease in global GHG emissions,⁽²⁴⁾ minimising detrimental impacts on human health and urban wellbeing. This is partly because public transport vehicles are considerably more efficient than private vehicles. For example, a car fuelled by gasoline emits an average of 130-170 grams of CO₂ per passenger per kilometre, whereas a bus, also fuelled by gasoline, emits 20-30 grams.⁽²⁵⁾ Many studies have demonstrated the cost-effectiveness of investing in public transport infrastructure.⁽²⁶⁾ Although it cannot provide the sole solution to environmental sustainability or the sustainable development of Africa’s urban centres, investing in public transport infrastructure is a feasible and effective objective with great benefits that cannot be ignored.

There are equally important public health gains from promoting various modes of public transport and investing in safer infrastructure. For one thing, the rising morbidity and mortality because of road traffic accidents further strains health systems and takes or affects the lives of contributing members of society, compromising productivity. Additionally, many social determinants of health can be impacted through the promotion of available and efficient public transport, and the establishment of safe pedestrian and cycling zones. For instance, sedentary lifestyles and lack of physical activity are estimated to cause 3 million deaths globally each year.⁽²⁷⁾ A shift from private to public transport can promote healthier work commutes such as cycling or walking, and can free up time associated with long commutes that can be used to pursue more productive and healthier habits. Adequate, accessible and affordable transport networks in African cities can also lead to less stressful environments; better access to services, education, and employment opportunities; and free up resources associated with owning, maintaining and registering private vehicles.

This means the potential co-benefits of sustainable transport infrastructure can include decreased morbidity and mortality resulting from fewer road traffic accidents; decreased incidence of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases (from increased physical activity and decreased air pollution); and decreased incidence of other lifestyle diseases such as Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, obesity-related diseases, and some cancers (also from increased physical activity, decreased air pollution and less stressful environments).⁽²⁸⁾ Figure 2 summarises some health benefits of public-transport related mitigation strategies.

Figure 2. Transport strategies to mitigate climate change and corresponding health gains ⁽²⁹⁾

Environmental and sustainability considerations aside, choosing to ignore the pressing health threats of unsafe roads and hazardous transport services is a costly oversight. In LMIC, the cost associated with road traffic injuries amounts twice the development aid and assistance received.⁽³⁰⁾ In Africa, motor vehicle accidents cost African countries 1-3% of their GDP.⁽³¹⁾ The estimated GDP lost due to road traffic accidents in Nigeria, for example, is 4%, 1.6% in Ghana, 2.9% in Uganda, and 3.4% in Tanzania.⁽³²⁾ The benefits from cutting the incidence of accidents that occur in Africa in half by 2020 are estimated to be equivalent to US$ 340 billion.⁽³³⁾ For governments who continue to leave these issues unaddressed, the detriments are likely to far outweigh any short-term benefits of ignorance and inaction.

Public transport: A matter of equity

Dangerous road environments and inaccessible transport infrastructure in cities disproportionately affect the urban poor. With no safe and reliable mode of transport, they are forced to utilise the cheapest and most hazardous forms of informal and private transport. The poor are usually those cycling, walking, or riding two-wheelers, old minibuses, or old and decrepit private vehicles. They are the most vulnerable and exposed on Africa’s roads.⁽³⁴⁾ Having fewer financial resources than the wealthier classes of urban society, they also spend a greater percentage of their income on transport-related services. Both these factors contribute to intensifying urban inequality. Therefore, promoting public transport infrastructure can also be seen as a way of promoting equity in Africa’s cities. Conversely, choosing to ignore this in public policy and urban design stands to further contribute to this social injustice.

Concluding remarks

There is little doubt regarding the multiple benefits of investing in public transport infrastructure and the cost effectiveness of doing so. A single intervention implemented consistently can have palpable and extremely beneficial outcomes on many different sectors of urban society - great gains can be accomplished for comparatively little input.

Despite these potential gains, there has been a general lack of action in Sub-Saharan cities when it comes to addressing the multi-layered urban transport conundrum.⁽³⁵⁾ Even more worrying is the general paradigm of urban municipalities that lives lost indirectly or directly related to transport are a necessary, although perhaps unfortunate, cost of urban development.⁽³⁶⁾ The evidence suggests that there is absolutely nothing necessary about them. Lives are lost, growth counteracted, environmental concerns disregarded, sustainability compromised, and health conceded because governments fail to support urban growth and mobility with the feasible, cost-efficient, effective policies, regulations, and infrastructure available. This ignorance may undermine other sustainable development efforts in African cities, further compromising a city’s ability to prosper while preparing for future risks.

By establishing sustainable urban transport systems, African cities can protect environmental health, mitigate climate-related consequences, promote economic growth, advance public health, and decrease inequality. Looked at from this perspective and given what the evidence in this discussion paper suggests about the further consequences of inaction, the question for African cities should not be whether to act, but how best to act. Action is essential to ensure the sustainability of African urban centres, and further inaction may result in an overwhelming unsustainable crash of urban development.

Written by Rachel Rose Jackson ⁽¹⁾

NOTES:

(1) Rachel Rose Jackson is a Research Associate with CAI and a healthcare professional whose work focuses on how systems can develop sustainably in ways that mitigate climate change consequences to health and the environment while promoting social equity. Contact Rachel through Consultancy Africa Intelligence’s Enviro Africa unit ( enviro.africa@consultancyafrica.com). Edited by Liezl Stretton.
(2) Candiracci, S., ‘Climate change, urbanization and sustainable urban transport in developing country cities’, 10 November 2009, UN-HABITAT: Nairobi, http://www.unhabitat.org.
(3) ‘Climate change 2007: Synthesis report’, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007, http://www.ipcc.ch.
(4) Candiracci, S., ‘Climate change, urbanization and sustainable urban transport in developing country cities’, 10 November 2009, UN-HABITAT: Nairobi, http://www.unhabitat.org.
(5) Kessides, C., ‘The urban transition in Sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for economic growth and poverty reduction’, The Cities Alliance, 2006, http://www.citiesalliance.org.
(6) Eickmans, L. and Nasei, I., ‘Sustainable mobility for African cities: Promoting non-motorised transport options and compact cities as compliments to public transport’, UN-HABITAT, 7 October 2010, http://www.unhabitat.org.
(7) ‘Overview of public transport in Sub-Saharan Africa’, International Association of Public Transport, 2008, http://www.uitp.org.
(8) Adriazola, C., ‘Boom and bus: How public transport can curb road deaths as our cities grow’, The Guardian, 3 September 2013, http://www.theguardian.com.
(9) Ibid.
(10) Wright, L. and Fulton, L., 2005. Climate change mitigation and transport in developing nations. Transport Reviews, 25(6), pp. 691-717, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu; Candiracci, S., ‘Climate change, urbanization and sustainable urban transport in developing country cities’, 10 November 2009, UN-HABITAT: Nairobi, http://www.unhabitat.org.
(11) Candiracci, S., ‘Climate change, urbanization and sustainable urban transport in developing country cities’, 10 November 2009, UN-HABITAT: Nairobi, http://www.unhabitat.org.
(12) ‘Health co-benefits of climate change mitigation: The transport sector’, World Health Organization, 2011, http://www.who.int.
(13) Kelly, A. and Chambers, I., ‘Why are roads one of the biggest killers?’, 30 August 2013, The Guardian podcast, http://www.theguardian.com; ‘Global status report on road safety 2013: Supporting a decade of action’, World Health Organization, 2013, http://www.who.int.
(14) ‘Road safety in the WHO Africa region: The facts 2013’, World Health Organization, 2013, http://www.afro.who.int.
(15) Candiracci, S., ‘Climate change, urbanization and sustainable urban transport in developing country cities’, 10 November 2009, UN-HABITAT: Nairobi, http://www.unhabitat.org.
(16) Williams, B., ‘Sustainable urban transport in Africa: Issues and challenges’, UN-HABITAT, http://www.walshcarlines.com.
(17) Candiracci, S., ‘Climate change, urbanization and sustainable urban transport in developing country cities’, 10 November 2009, UN-HABITAT: Nairobi, http://www.unhabitat.org.
(18) Williams, B., ‘Sustainable urban transport in Africa: Issues and challenges’, UN-HABITAT, http://www.walshcarlines.com.
(19) ‘Road safety in the WHO Africa region: The facts 2013’, World Health Organization, 2013, http://www.afro.who.int.
(20) Marquez, P. and Farrington, J., ‘The challenges of non-communicable diseases and road traffic injuries in Sub-Saharan Africa: An overview’, The World Bank, June 2013, http://documents.worldbank.org.
(21) ‘Road safety in the WHO Africa region: The facts 2013’, World Health Organization, 2013, http://www.afro.who.int.
(22) ‘Health co-benefits of climate change mitigation: The transport sector’, World Health Organization, 2011, http://www.who.int.
(23) ‘Overview of public transport in Sub-Saharan Africa’, International Association of Public Transport, 2008, http://www.uitp.org; Kelly, A. and Chambers, I., ‘Why are roads one of the biggest killers?’, 30 August 2013, The Guardian podcast, http://www.theguardian.com; Eickmans, L., and Nasei, I., ‘Sustainable mobility for African cities: Promoting non-motorised transport options and compact cities as compliments to public transport’, UN-HABITAT, 7 October 2010, http://www.unhabitat.org.
(24) ‘Health co-benefits of climate change mitigation: The transport sector’, World Health Organization, 2011, http://www.who.int.
(25) Ibid.
(26) Wright, L. and Fulton, L., 2005. Climate change mitigation and transport in developing nations. Transport Reviews, 25(6), pp. 691-717, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu.
(27) ‘Health co-benefits of climate change mitigation: The transport sector’, World Health Organization, 2011, http://www.who.int.
(28) Ibid.
(29) Ibid.
(30) Sharma, B., 2008. Road traffic injuries: A major global public health crisis. Public Health, 122(12), pp. 1399-1406, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
(31) Marquez, P. and Farrington, J., ‘The challenges of non-communicable diseases and road traffic injuries in Sub-Saharan Africa: An overview’, The World Bank, June 2013, http://documents.worldbank.org.
(32) ‘Global status report on road safety 2013: Supporting a decade of action’, World Health Organization, 2013, http://www.who.int.
(33) Marquez, P. and Farrington, J., ‘The challenges of non-communicable diseases and road traffic injuries in Sub-Saharan Africa: An overview’, The World Bank, June 2013, http://documents.worldbank.org.
(34) Sharma, B., 2008. Road traffic injuries: A major global public health crisis. Public Health, 122(12), pp. 1399-1406, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
(35) ‘Overview of public transport in Sub-Saharan Africa’, International Association of Public Transport, 2008, http://www.uitp.org.
(36) Kelly, A. and Chambers, I., ‘Why are roads one of the biggest killers?’, 30 August 2013, The Guardian podcast, http://www.theguardian.com.