The Sino-African relationship has emerged as a new hot topic of conversation among scholars, politicians and the international media. Current discourse emphasises recent Chinese engagement in Africa as originating from an economic, environmental and political perspective, allowing for limited emphasis on the historical background of this relationship. This paper aims to investigate and highlight how Sino-African relations have been expressed through Chinese propaganda posters in the pre-reform period, and to identify some motivational factors for China´s current re-engagement with Africa.

Chinese Propaganda Posters

The economic reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping from 1978 have been labelled as ‘the opening up’ of China to the outside world and effectively ended the country’s isolation from the global international stage. However, when one takes a look at the Chinese posters that were published in the decades between 1950 and 1980, it becomes evident that these statements are misleading. The posters depict Chinese people arm in arm with people from different continents and of different colours.⁽²⁾ This indicates that China had contact with other states and was updated about occurring events. A prominent Chinese scholar, Jianfeng Zhu, has since asked, “If China did have contact with foreign countries, for whom then did China open up in 1978?” Simply, the answer is the Western world. Therefore, China’s interaction prior to 1978 was mainly with non-Western states.⁽³⁾ Although China was actively engaged with the Third World during the Cold War, this engagement has received limited documentation, leaving what has been deemed a significant literature gap when it comes to understanding the historical ties between China and Africa.⁽⁴⁾ These posters are therefore one form of media on which this interaction was recorded.

Li Song, of the Shanghai Propaganda Art Centre, one of a handful of propaganda poster museums in China, presents his personal collection of 40,000 propaganda posters from the period between the 1920s and 1990s. Song notes that with the foundation of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) began making use of posters “to express their agenda” to the public. For this reason, these same posters were targeted and, in many cases, destroyed after the Cultural Revolution in an attempt to hide previous policy mistakes.⁽⁵⁾ But these posters highlighted more than just policy mistakes; they also spoke to China’s foreign policy towards Africa.

From ideological to normative discourse

Between mid-1950 and 1960, the CCP directed its foreign policy towards the newly independent states in the Third World, and for ideological purposes began supporting national liberation movements and radical communist parties in Africa and Latin America.⁽⁶⁾ The aim was to spread Communism and in 1963-1964, the Chinese Premier, Zhou Enlai, conducted a ‘grand Africa tour’ to enhance Sino-Africa relations.⁽⁷⁾ It is important to note that the ongoing Cold War made Chinese engagement in Africa much less challenging, as opposed to that of the Soviet Union. In the beginning of the 1960s, Mao began articulating his doctrine of a ‘People´s War’, which advocated a united front among peasants around the globe to struggle against and overthrow all that was deemed to be ‘imperialism, revisionism and reaction.’⁽⁸⁾ As a result, posters from the early 1960s contained an ideological discourse with a strong emphasis towards liberation struggles and a perceived friendship between China and the Third World states of Latin America, Africa and Asia, as shown in the images below. These images clearly highlight a strong emphasis on unity and an anti-imperialist struggle, indicating an ideological undertone. As visible in the images, Chinese people stand together with citizens from Third World states fighting against so-called Western imperialism.

Image 1: "The struggle of all the people in the world against American imperialism will be victorious!"⁽⁹⁾

Image 2: "Vigorously support the anti-imperialist struggle of the peoples of Asia, Africa and Latin America."⁽¹⁰⁾

In 1969, Premier Enlai, together with Deng Xiaoping, separated Chinese policy from ideology in order to maintain ‘an equidistance between the superpowers’ of the United States of America (USA) and the Soviet Union, whilst simultaneously emphasising a stronger relationship with the lesser developed Third World.⁽¹¹⁾ This meant that China had taken an active move to co-opt a more pragmatic approach to determining its foreign relations, rather than through ideological similarities and motivations. As a result, China began cooperating with governments with which it shared a common interest, such as those in Africa and other Third World nations. Political and diplomatic relations became a focal point and China tried to establish itself as a member and spokesperson for the Third World.⁽¹²⁾

Propaganda posters were also used to depict some of the policies the Chinese Government implemented in African states between 1960 and 1980. The Chinese Government granted an interest free loan to the value of some 988 million Yuan to the governments of Tanzania and Zambia for the construction of the Tazara railway line that connects the two countries with the eastern coast of Africa.⁽¹³⁾ The project included 13,500 Chinese construction workers and became the symbol of Sino-African relationships for several decades.⁽¹⁴⁾ Song argues that the Tazara project was one of the first major infrastructure projects implemented by the Chinese Government in Africa, and thus held significant value when it came to understanding Sino-African relations.⁽¹⁵⁾

Adopting a policy of health

Since the mid-1950s, China has actively adopted a policy of ‘health diplomacy’ on the African continent, dubbing the action “political activity that meets dual goals of improving health while maintaining and strengthening international relations.”⁽¹⁶⁾ In 1963 Premier Enlai sent the first full medical team to Algeria, and the team was followed soon after with additional medical personnel, equipment and supplies to states around the continent,⁽¹⁷⁾ resulting in approximately 16,000 medical personnel being sent to several African states as a part of their Official Development Assistance policy.⁽¹⁸⁾ Currently, Chinese medical aid to Africa is considered as being one of the most beneficial and efficient types of aid provided.⁽¹⁹⁾ This cooperation continues, and in 2003 it was estimated that there were some 860 Chinese medical personnel serving in 34 African states, not only working to reduce diseases such as malaria and HIV/AIDS, but also training local medical personnel.⁽²⁰⁾ This policy too was advertised to the Chinese population through posters displaying Chinese medical personnel and Africa.

Image 3: "The feelings of friendship between the peoples of China and Africa are deep."⁽²¹⁾

Image 4: "Seas and oceans are not separated, the silver needle passes on friendship."⁽²²⁾

Purpose of cooperation and current discourse

It is evident that Africa has played a visible role in Chinese foreign policy since the 1950s, and, as is visible in the posters, there is a strong emphasis on this friendship. Song notes that most of the posters published during the 1970s that highlighted Sino-African relations during this period, contained slogans with key words such as ‘friendship’ and ‘partnership’, all of which were expressed in practice through the constant flow of economic aid and investment.⁽²³⁾ However, it would be misleading to state that China´s interest and engagement in Africa was based solely on friendship.

Frank Mora argues that China’s identification with Africa served several goals. In the pre-1978 period, Chinese foreign policy revolved around an improved national security and an international recognition of China´s position of prominence and authority on the global stage. Since 1978, policy has focused on economic modernisation, and development through trade and intense economic relations.⁽²⁴⁾ Song also highlighted this switch by noting that relationships with Africa have become “more beneficial for China because Africa is rich in the natural resources that China needs.”⁽²⁵⁾ This phenomenon is acknowledged by several scholars, which underlines that Africa’s historical tie with China has benefited the latter when it comes to access to natural resources in the 21st century. It could therefore be argued that China’s continued interest is now motivated by economic factors, as opposed to the previous ideological and leadership aspirations that formed the basis of cooperation in the pre-reform period.

Conclusion

This paper has shown that Chinese propaganda posters clearly visualise that China was connected to and communicated with the outside world during its pre-reform period. A new international interest among scholars has emerged after the release of China´s new Africa policy in 2006, causing relations to reach a turning point in which Chinese investment and aid experienced rapid growth. However, little attention and information has been provided regarding the historical ties between these two actors. Chinese propaganda posters hold a significant value, and clearly highlight the fact that Chinese engagement in Africa is not a new phenomenon – albeit the foundation of this engagement has changed over the last few decades.

Written by Zeynep Erdal ⁽¹⁾

NOTES:

(1) Contact Zeynep Erdal through Consultancy Africa Intelligence's Asia Dimension Unit ( asia.dimension@consultancyafrica.com). This CAI discussion paper was developed with the assistance of Megan Erasmus and was edited by Nicky Berg.
(2) See the various posters included in this paper.
(3) Zhu, J., personal communication, 24 October 2012, Proffessor at Sociology, Fudan University: China.
(4) Large, D., 2008. Beyond dragon in the bush: The study of China-Africa relations. African Affairs, 107(426), pp. 45-61.
(5) Song, L., personal communication, 22 October 2012, Shanghai Propaganda Art Center: China.
(6) Mora, F.O., 1997. The People´s Republic of China and Latin America: From indifference to engagement. Asian Affairs, 24(1), pp. 35-58; Youde, J., 2010. China´s health diplomacy in Africa. China: An International Journal, 8(1), pp. 151-163.
(7) Large, D., 2008. Beyond dragon in the bush: The study of China-Africa relations. African Affairs, 107(426), pp. 45-61.
(8) Mora, F.O., 1997. The People´s Republic of China and Latin America: From indifference to engagement. Asian Affairs, 24(1), pp. 35-58.
(9) Kongde, H., ’The struggle of all the people in the world against American imperialism will be victorious!’, September 1965, Chinese Posters Foundation: China, http://chineseposters.net.
(10) Ruizhuang, Z., ‘Vigorously support the anti-imperialist struggle of the peoples of Asia, Africa and Latin America’, 1964, Chinese Posters Foundation: China, http://chineseposters.net.
(11) Mora, F.O., 1997. The People´s Republic of China and Latin America: From indifference to engagement. Asian Affairs, 24(1), pp. 35-58.
(12) Ibid.
(13) Tanzania Zambia Railway Authority website, http://www.tazarasite.com.
(14) Sautman, B. and Hairong, Y., 2007. Friends and interests: China´s distinctive links with Africa. African Studies Review, 50(3), pp. 75-114.
(15) Song, L., personal communication, 22 October 2012, Shanghai Propaganda Art Center: China.
(16) Youde, J., 2010. China´s health diplomacy in Africa. China: An International Journal, 8(1), pp. 151-163.
(17) Ibid.
(18) Sautman, B. and Hairong, Y., 2008. “Friends and interests: China´s distinctive links with Africa”, in Guerrero, D.G.  and Manji, F. (eds.). China´s new role in Africa and the South: A search for new perspective. Focus on the Global South: Bangkok.
(19) Youde, J., 2010. China´s health diplomacy in Africa. China: An International Journal, 8(1), pp. 151-163.
(20) Ibid.
(21) Changzhoushi gongnongbing meishu chuangzuo xuexiban gonggao,’The feelings of friendship between the peoples of China and Africa are deep’, May 1972, Chinese Posters Foundation: China, http://chineseposters.net.
(22) Chen Liren, ‘Seas and oceans are not separated, the silver needle passes on friendship’, December 1971, Chinese Posters Foundation: China, http://chineseposters.net.
(23) Song., personal communication, 22 October 2012, Shanghai Propaganda Art Center: China.
(24) Mora, F.O., 1997. The People´s Republic of China and Latin America: From indifference to engagement. Asian Affairs, 24(1), pp. 35-58.
(25) Song., personal communication, 22 October 2012, Shanghai Propaganda Art Center: China.